Programming Essentials in C - Lecture 1

What is Problem-Solving?

• Problem-solving is the process of identifying a problem, analyzing its causes, and finding effective solutions to address it.
• This skill is essential in various fields, from technology and business to everyday life situations.

Key Steps in Problem-Solving

1. Identify the Problem: Clearly define the issue to understand its scope and impact.

2. Analyze the Problem: Break down the problem to identify root causes and contributing factors.

3. Generate Possible Solutions: Brainstorm multiple approaches to address the issue.

4. Evaluate and Select Solutions: Compare potential solutions based on feasibility, effectiveness, and resources.

5. Implement the Solution: Put the chosen solution into action with a clear plan.

6. Evaluate the Outcome: Assess the effectiveness of the solution and make adjustments if necessary.

Problem-Solving Techniques

1. Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

A systematic approach to identify the fundamental cause of a problem.
Steps:

• Define the problem.
• Collect data and evidence.
• Analyze the data to identify the cause.
• Implement solutions to prevent recurrence.

Example:

• Problem: A website is loading slowly.
• Root Cause: Unoptimized database queries.
• Solution: Optimize database indexes and queries.

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2. Brainstorming

A collaborative method to generate creative ideas.

Steps:

• Clearly define the problem.
• Allow free-flowing idea generation.
• Avoid criticism during the idea phase.
• Select the best ideas.

Example:

• Problem: Designing a new UI feature for better user engagement.
• Solutions:
  • Introduce interactive elements.
  • Implement dark mode.
  • Use personalized content recommendations.

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3. The 5 Whys Technique

A method to uncover root causes by repeatedly asking "why."

Steps:

• Ask "why" iteratively until the root cause is identified (typically 5 times).

Example:

• Problem: A server crashes frequently.

  1. Why? CPU usage spiked.
  2. Why? A process consumed too much power.
  3. Why? Infinite loop in the code.
  4. Why? Incorrect exit condition.
  5. Why? Inadequate code review.

• Root Cause: Lack of thorough code review.

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4. SWOT Analysis

A strategic tool to evaluate Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.

Steps:

• Identify internal strengths and weaknesses.
• Evaluate external opportunities and threats.

Example:

• Problem: Choosing a cloud provider for a scalable web app.
• SWOT Table:

Strengths	Weaknesses	Opportunities	Threats
High reliability	Higher cost	Growing demand	Security risks
Global reach	Steeper learning curve	New services	Vendor lock-in

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5. Trial and Error

Testing solutions iteratively until success is achieved.
Steps:

• Try a solution.
• Evaluate effectiveness.
• Modify or choose a new solution if needed.
• Repeat until resolved.

Example:

• Problem: A machine learning model produces inaccurate predictions.

• Steps:

  1. Adjust learning rate (failed).
  2. Add more training data (partial improvement).
  3. Fine-tune hyperparameters (success).

Summary

Technique	Purpose	Example Use Case
Root Cause Analysis (RCA)	Identify fundamental causes	Debugging software issues
Brainstorming	Generate creative solutions	Designing new app features
5 Whys Technique	Uncover deep causes	Fixing performance bottlenecks
SWOT Analysis	Evaluate strategic decisions	Choosing a cloud provider
Trial and Error	Experiment until success	Tuning machine learning models

Flowcharts

Flowcharts visually represent processes using symbols and arrows.

Common Symbols in Flowcharts:

1. Oval

• Function: Indicate the START or END of the program.

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2. Parallelogram

• Function: Input and output operations like INPUT, READ, and PRINT.

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3. Rectangle

• Function: Processing steps, such as storing values or performing arithmetic calculations.

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4. Diamond

• Function: Indicates decision-making (e.g., condition checks).

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5. Circle

• Function: On-page connectors, circles help join different parts of a flowchart on the same page.

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6. Flow Lines

• Function: Arrows Indicating process flow.

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Flowchart Structures

1. Sequence: Executes steps in order.

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2. Decision: Uses conditions to determine next steps.

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3. Loop: Repeats steps until a condition is met.

Decision Binary Structure

NOTE

Two acceptable representations for decision structures: Condition as a Statement or Condition as a Question.

1. Condition as a Statement

• Outcomes: True or False.
• Example:

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2. Condition as a Question

• Outcomes: Yes or No.
• Example:

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Repetition Structure

Requires a termination condition to stop the loop.

Termination Condition Testing:

1. Pre-test Loop (while loop):
   • Condition checked before loop execution.

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2. Post-test Loop (do-while loop):
   • Condition checked after loop execution.

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Flowchart Examples

1. Average of Three Numbers

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2. Sum of First 100 Positive Integers

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3. Largest Among a, b, c

Fundamentals of Programming

Algorithms

An algorithm is a finite set of steps to solve a problem. It must be:

• Finite (Terminates after a certain number of steps)
• Definite (Clear and unambiguous)
• Accept input and produce output
• Effective (Executable in a reasonable time)

Example Algorithms

1. Find the Maximum of Two Numbers

Steps:

1. Start
2. Input two numbers, A and B
3. If A > B, display A as the largest
4. Else, display B as the largest
5. End

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2. Find the Largest of Three Numbers

Problem: Identify the largest among three numbers.
Steps:

1. Start
2. Input A, B, C
3. If A > B and A > C, print A
4. Else if B > C, print B
5. Otherwise, print C
6. End

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3. Sum of First N Natural Numbers

Problem: Calculate the sum of numbers from 1 to N.
Steps:

1. Start
2. Input N
3. Initialize sum = 0
4. For i = 1 to N:
   1. sum = sum + i
5. Print sum
6. End

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Algorithms vs. Flowcharts

Algorithm	Flowchart
Step-by-step logical procedure using English descriptions.	Diagrammatic representation using symbols and arrows.
Suitable for small problems.	Effective for visualizing complex programs.
Less effective for complex programs.	More suitable for detailed, complex logic.
Example: Conditional checks (e.g., "if A > B, print A").	Example: Decision diamonds (True/False branches) and process boxes.

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Algorithm vs. Flowchart vs. Program

Concept	Description
Algorithm	Step-by-step instructions to solve a problem.
Flowchart	Graphical representation of an algorithm.
Program	Implementation of an algorithm in a programming language.

Textbooks & Readings

• Computer Programming in C for Beginners – A. C. Rao (2019)
• Beej's Guide to C Programming – Beej Jorgensen Hall (2022)